AccScience Publishing / HPR / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/hpr.0364
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Technological and artificial intelligence pathways to psychological empowerment and health in basketball: A narrative review on virtual reality, biofeedback, and mindfulness

Nikolaos Kostopoulos1† ,  Theodoros Rachiotis1†* ,  Christos Marmarinos1 ,  Panagiotis Kostopoulos2 ,  Ioannis Dionysopoulos3 ,  Elias Armenis1*
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1 Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (EKPA), Athens, Attica, Greece
2 Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini GR, East Macedonia & Thrace, Greece
3 Department of Sports Organization and Management, School of Human Movement and Quality of Life Sciences, University of the Peloponnese, Tripoli, Peloponnese, Greece
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
HPR, 0364 https://doi.org/10.36922/hpr.0364
Received: 8 November 2025 | Revised: 26 January 2026 | Accepted: 27 January 2026 | Published online: 4 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Background: Modern basketball demands attentional control, rapid decision-making, and regulation of anxiety under pressure. Virtual reality (VR), biofeedback or neurofeedback, and mindfulness-based training are increasingly used, yet their combined contribution to psychological empowerment and mental health remains unclear.

Objective: This narrative review synthesized evidence from 2015 to 2025 using Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science, supplemented by reference chaining, and integrated findings through a predefined mechanism framework and a qualitative evidence–weight appraisal. VR studies in basketball and closely related sports suggest improvements in perceptual–cognitive decision skills and provide standardized pressure exposure; however, most evidence is short-term and relies on near-transfer outcomes with limited competition-level validation. Heart rate variability biofeedback shows more consistent support for arousal regulation and pressure-sensitive performance stability, whereas electroencephalography neurofeedback remains promising but heterogeneous, with few basketball–specific trials. Mindfulness-based programs can strengthen attentional stability, acceptance, and rapid refocusing, with mixed findings for broader mental health outcomes and clear dose- and context-dependent boundary conditions. A complementary model is proposed in which VR provides representative exposure and rehearsal, biofeedback supports physiological self-regulation, and mindfulness supports cognitive–emotional regulation. Current artificial intelligence use is best characterized as decision support, for example, readiness analytics from heart rate variability, sleep, and wellness reports, adaptive training difficulty, and trend dashboards, while predictive real-time multimodal systems remain largely prospective and require validation.

Conclusion: Future research should prioritize basketball–specific controlled trials, ecologically valid outcomes, and longitudinal designs that test underlying mechanisms and durable transfer.

Keywords
Basketball
Psychological empowerment
Virtual reality
Biofeedback
Mindfulness
Artificial intelligence
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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